EUROPEAN DISEASES Essay -- essays research papers fc

The greatest adversary to the natives in the Americas was not the swords or guns of the invaders. It was the devastation brought by deadly diseases infecting an unsuspecting population that had no immunity to such diseases. The Europeans were said to be thoroughly diseased by the time Columbus set sail on his first voyage (Cowley, 1991). Through the domestication of such animals as pigs, horses, sheep, and cattle, the Europeans exposed themselves to a vast array of pathogens which continued to be spread through wars, explorations, and city-building. Thus any European who crossed the Atlantic was immune to such diseases as measles and smallpox because of battling them as a child. The original inhabitants traveled to the New World in groups of a couple hundred each. Because microbes such as the ones that cause measles and smallpox need populations of several million to survive, the original populations were unaffected by the deadly diseases. However, by the time Columbus arrived, the major Indian groups of Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas had built their populations up enough to sustain mass epidemics. Evidence shows that these populations suffered from such diseases as syphilis, tuberculosis, a few intestinal parasites, and some types of flu, but not the diseases that had been infecting the Old World for centuries. Thus when the Europeans arrived bringing diseases such as smallpox, measles, whooping cough, etc. the natives were immunologically defenseless (Cowley, 1991). It is believed that 40 million to 50 million people inhabited the New World before the arrival of Columbus and the Europeans, and that most of them died within a few decades. For example, Mexico's population fell from about 30 million in 1519 to 3 million in 1588. The other South and Central American countries as well as the Caribbean islands suffered the same devastation (Cowley, 1991). Mass epidemics were virtually unknown in the New World prior to the invasion of the Europeans. Aside from their lack of immunity to the pathogens, another factor in the rapid spread of the diseases could have been the weariness of the Indian populations. Due to their recent conquest and oppression by the Spaniards, the Indians were probably too tired to fight the infections. One thing that must be noted is that contrary to popular belief, infectious agents such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc. are not desig... ...o be like syphilis in that it was haunting isolated populations before becoming global. And just as syphilis was carried globally by ships; jet planes and world-wide social changes have brought AIDS out of isolation. Like smallpox and other infectious diseases in the 16th century and AIDS in the 20th century, what new disease will hit and destroy unsuspecting populations? BIBLIOGRAPHY Cowley, Geoffrey. "The Great Disease Migration." Newsweek (Special Issue, Fall/Winter 1991) pp. 54-56 Crosby, Alfred W. Jr. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Westport: Greenwood Press, 1972 Assignment: Write a short review of this paper for class on Friday. In addition, overwhelming historical evidence suggests that the greatest rates of morbidity and death from infection are associated with the introduction of new diseases from one region of the world to another by processes associated with civilized transport of goods at speeds and over distances outside the range of movements common to hunting and gathering groups. (excerpt from book of same title: pp. 131-141) Cohen, M. Health and the Rise of Civilization. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.

Eco 507 Midterm

ECO 507 Midterm Test 1. (i. ) ? =? lnQ/? lnP ? =P/Q* (? Q/? K) = Elasticity The coefficients of double log model are the corresponding elasticities Price elasticity = 1. 247 Income elasticity = 1. 905 (ii. )Price elasticity = -1. 2 Income elasticity = 2 Cross price elasticity = 1. 5 Current volume = 10 mil Average income increase by 2. 5% New qty after increase in income = Ie=2 2=%? Q%? I 2=%? Q/2. 5 %? Q=5% New Qty = 11. 445 mil To increase the sales volume only by 9. 2% you would have to reduce the price. %? Q/%? P=Pe -5. 25%?P=-1. 2 %? P=4. 375% (iii). a. Maximize†¦Z = M + . 5S + . 5MS – S? Subject to 30000S + 60000M = 1200000 Lagrangean†¦L=M+. 5S+. MS-S2+? 1,200,000-30,000S-60,000M ?L? S=0. 5+0. 5M-2S-30,000? ?L? M=1+0. 5S-60,000? ?L =30,000S+60,000M Equating ? , I get 1 + 0. 5S/60000 = 0. 5 + 0. 5M – 2S M = 4. 5S By substituting into budget constraint, I get 30000S + 60000 * 4. 5S = 1200000 S = 4 M = 18 b. Cost function = 30000S + 60000M Marginal cost of S = 30000 Marginal cost of M = 60000 Total marginal cost = 90000 c. (iv. ) a. Demand†¦Q = a – bPE = (P/Q)*(? Q/? P) E = -b (P/Q) -0. 4 = -b(4/2) b = 0. 2 a = Q + bP = 2 + 0. 2 * 4 a = 2. 08 Demand Equation†¦Q = 2. 08 – 0. 2P 2. (i) Q = LK ?Q? L = K ?2Q? L2 = 0 The second order derivative did not give a negative value, so it ignores the condition of diminishing marginal productivity of labor. b. Q (L, K) = LK Q (mL, mK) = m? LK The output increases more than proportionally, there are increasing returns to scale. c. Q = LK TC = wL + rK L = wL + rK + ? (Q-LK) ?L? L = w + ? (K) =0 ?L? K = r + ? (L) =0 w /r = K/L =RTSIn this equation, the firm should use K and L as given that ratio to minimize cost of production. The Lagrangean Multiplier is marginal cost of any input to marginal benefit of any input should be same for any input. It explains if marginal cost –benefit ratio is greater for K than L, we have to substitute L for K to minimize cost. d. 225 = LK 225 = 16L+144K L = 16L+144K + ? (225-LK) ?L? L = 16 + ? (K) =0 ?L? K = 144 + ? (L) =0 K/L =0. 11 K = 0. 11 L L (0. 11L) = 225 0. 11 L^2 = 225 L^2= 2045. 46 L = 45. 23 45. 23K = 225 K = 4. 97 TC = 16*45. 23+144*4. 7 TC = $1439. 36 e. (ii) X dollars increase in the daily rate above $60, there are x units vacant. So 60+X= 80-X 2X=20 X=10 If they charge 60+10=$70, 10 rooms will be vacant and 70- rooms will be occupied. The profit for 80 rooms occupation at $60 per room, TR= 80*60= $4800 TC= 4*80= $320 Profit = $4480 The profit for 70 rooms at the price of $70 TR= 70*70= $4900 TC= 4*70= $280 Profit= $4900 -$280= $4620 In this case the profit will also be maximized. 3. i) a) Maximize Y = 2Ty – . 001Ty^2 S. t. 100Ty + 25Tz = 1300 Also Maximize Z= 20 Tz – . 1 Tz^2 S. t 100Ty + 25Tz = 1300 b) I used the Lagrangean to get: L = 2Ty – . 001Ty^2 + 20 Tz – . 01 Tz^2 +? (1300 – 100 Ty- 25Tz) dL/dTy = 2 – 0. 002Ty – ? (100) = 0 dL/dTz = 20 – 0 . 02Tz -? (25) = 0 Also 100Ty + 25Tz = 1300 Divide the first two equation to get : 2 – 0. 002Ty = ? (100) 20 – 0. 02Tz =? (25) 2- 0. 002Ty = 100 20- 0. 02Tz = 25 2-0. 002Ty /20- 0. 002Tz = 4 2- 0. 002Ty = 80 – 0. 008Tz 0. 008 Tz – 0. 002Ty = 78 100Ty + 25Tz = 1300 So T*y = 2. 28 and Tz = 42. 88 ii) a) Q= 10 L – 0. 1L ^2 Wage rate = 12Now Q = 250 Then L required Then L* = 50 And Labor price is 12 so total cost = 12Ãâ€"50 = 600 < 500. You should not accept the offer b) Optimal amount of labor will be the one that equates MPL with wage ratio MPL = 10 – 0. 2L = 2 8 = 0. 2 L L* = 40 And wage paid = 80 This is the optimal point and I should accept the offer as 80 < 500 Profit = 500 – 80 = 420 iii) To calculate the optimal price I used the markup formula that says that P – MC/ P = – 1/ed Put the values to get P- 10/P = -1/1. 5 1. 5 P – 15 = -P 2. 5 P = 15 P* = 6

Industrial Revolution facts, information Essay

Industrialisation is a period in which machines take place instead of men. It is the period in which machines do work once done by humans. This is basically time period from which the agrarian society transform into an industrial society. Background: Industrialisation took place in the mid of 18th century to early 19th century in mainly Europe and North America; starting in Great Britain followed by Germany, Belgium, and France. During this time period industries played a vital role in the urbanization of Europe. It was a shift from rural work to industrial labor. Mostly labor before industrialization used to work on their own, things were mostly handmade which took many time and labor. Industrialisation helped the poor community in different aspects of saving time as well as energy. The transformation from an agricultural economy to industrial economy is known as Industrial Revolution. Industrialisation had played the vital role in the construction of new society in Europe. As industrialization changed scenario of society but also bring devastation to the society because Capitalism emerged during industrialization which made rich community more richer and poor community poorer. Howard Zinn once said â€Å"Capitalism has been always the failure for the lower classes. It is now beginning to fail for the middle class†. Such various observers as Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim cited the â€Å"alienation† and â€Å"anomie† of individual workers faced by seemingly meaningless tasks and rapidly altering goals. The fragmentation of the extended family and community tended to isolate individuals and to countervail traditional values. By the very mechanism of growth, industrialism appears to create a new strain of poverty, whose victims for a variety of reasons are unable to compete according to the rules of the industrial order. In the major industrial ized nations of the late 20th century, such developments as automated technology, an expanding service sector, and increasing suburbanization signaled what some observers called the emergence of a postindustrial society. Industrialisation in Thomas Hardy’s novel â€Å"Tess Of The D’Ubbervilles†: When Thomas Hardy was born in 1840, agriculture was the most important industry in England, employing roughly 20% of the labor force. By 1900, however, agricultural workers comprised less than 10% of the total workforce. Hardy witnessed much of this hardship as a child growing up in Dorset–which would later become his model for Wessex. Hardy’s Dorset was, in fact, the poorest and least industrialized county in Britain, and the farm laborers led difficult, often unrewarding lives. Laborers toiled from six o’clock in the morning until six o’clock at night in the summer and from the first light until dusk in the winter. It was not uncommon to find women and children in the fields; their labor was frequently used as the cheap substitute for men’s. Their diet was monotonous and meager–bread, bacon and cheese, and only occasionally milk. They drank beer and tea, and those who could not afford tea would soak burnt toast in water. In addition, the li ving conditions of many of these laborers were horrendous. Many lived in squalor and did not have the money to improve their condition. In 1851, there were half a million such laborers in England. Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891) contains complex and detailed interrogations of many Victorian values and of the capitalist culture of his time. This novel is a fierce condemnation of the social, ethical, moral, religious, and political values held by the majority of Hardy’s cultural elite contemporaries in England. The most obvious example of Hardy’s cultural criticism is his assertion in the novel’s subtitle that Tess is â€Å"A Pure Woman.† By traditional Victorian standards, Tess is a fallen woman and as such is considered damaged goods suitable for the lowest bidder. Hardy is radically departing from these values by proclaiming Tess’s purity and virtue even though she has had sexual relations outside of marriage. It is, therefore, not surprising that initial reaction to the novel was highly negative. This cultural criticism is one of Hardy’s many challenges to the social conventions and values of his time found within this text. Tess’s struggle with Alec is both a gender and a class conflict. The text uses Tess’s relationship with Alec to expose the similarities and interconnections between a man’s physical and emotional oppression of a woman, on the one hand, and a more powerful social class’s economic oppression and destruction of a weaker class, on the other. Hardy’s Tess laments the destruction of the independent rural artisan class and blames nouveaux rich capitalist society for this degradation. Hardy goes on to condemn the industrialization of agricultural work because of what he views as the extremely destructive impact of technology and mechanization upon the quality of the rural workers’ lives. Hardy is also extremely critical of organized Christianity in several places throughout the novel, including the scene in which S orrow is actually denied a Christian burial. Hardy also raises questions about the injustice and inequality of a legal system, which finds Alec innocent of any wrongdoing but sentences Tess to death. Hardy clearly defines Tess as a member of the independent rural artisan class, a group whose way of life as a whole he asserts is at risk of extinction and whose quality of life is in decline due to capitalist economic forces and the industrialization of agricultural labor . He writes: â€Å"The village had formerly contained, side by side with the agricultural labourers, an interesting and better-informed class, ranking distinctly above the former – the class to which Tess’s father and mother had belonged – and including the carpenter, the smith, the shoemaker, the huckster, together with nondescript workers other than farm-labourers; a set of people who owed a certain stability of aim and conduct to the fact of their being life-holders like Tess’s father, or copyholders, or, occasionally, small free-holders. But as the long holdings fell in they were seldom again let to similar tenants, and were mostly pulled down†. (435) Hardy’s description of Alec’s family embodies all that Hardy maintains is wrong with capitalist nouveau riche society: there, money and status are more valuable and significant than people. Industrialisation in Charles Dicken novel â€Å"David Copper Field†: Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 in Portsmouth, the second of eight children. When he was nine years old his father was imprisoned for debt and all of the family except for young Charles were sent to Marshalsea, the debtors’ prison. Charles instead went to work in a blacking factory and suffered first hand the appalling conditions, loneliness, and despair. During his lifetime – he died in June 1870 – industrialization dramatically reshaped Britain, the population of London tripled and he saw the birth of the railways, the telegraph, and the steamship. He used his novels to bring to attention the social ills and abuses of Victorian England in such a way that the general public could relate and react to. For example, Oliver Twist attacked the workhouse system and portrayed a criminal underclass that captured the public’s imagination. In David Copperfield and Great Expectations, he drew on his early experiences of the debtors’ prison and the blacking factory. He exposed the brutal Yorkshire schools in Nicholas Nickleby and the inadequacies of the law in Pickwick Papers and Bleak House. The main reasons, therefore, were the mostly bad living conditions of the lower classes in factory cities, the automation of industry and the huge birth surplus in the country all throughout Great Britain. Furthermore, there were waves of migration into the huge cities and more and more capitalists that could be found in parliament, widely supporting political industrialization, completely neglecting the working conditions of their employees. In the Early Victorian Social Novel (1830 – 1850), the industrial system was to blame for the bad living conditions of the workers. However, it was not considered an abstract but rather manifested itself in individuals, like good and bad factory owners, responsible and irresponsible ones. And there was an unshakeable belief in morality and that those who were bad could be converted to good ones, those who were irresponsible could be made responsible. The authors at that time drew less attention to the details of the world of work and its machines, but rather preferred the depiction of physically and mentally injured people, because of their work. Therefore many metaphors were used to describe the prevailing social conditions, such as â€Å"Jungle of Work†, â€Å"Prison of Work† or â€Å"Subjugation of the worker through the machine†. Thinking of â€Å"Social Criticism†, huge institutions in society, like workhouses, industrialized cities or even certain governmental systems might occur to one’s mind in the first place. But many people forget that the smallest â€Å"institution† in society is the family. And the first socio-critical element in â€Å"David Copperfield† to begin with shall be the family itself. Therefore one has to know that families in the 19th century, especially in higher social classes, were organized completely differently than families are today. Usually, the husband was the â€Å"big boss† in the house, whereas the woman had to be the â€Å"good housewife and mother† who had to obey her husband. And the children, above all boys, normally were educated very strictly, and once out of the age in which they had to be cared for by their mother, they were completely under their father’s control and influence. Dickens’ now wants to criticize th is more or less â€Å"old-fashioned position† in his novel, but therefore he has to set up the right situation. The orphanage was an important topic at the time of industrialism because many parents had to work very hard and there were bad working conditions in the factories or workhouses. Subsequently, the parents were often physically worn out, many mothers not rarely died during or shortly after the birth of their children, and many fathers often died during their difficult, inhuman and most dangerous work. And the children they left were orphans, many of them still too young to care for themselves and facing a world they were not ready for, yet. And this topic of the orphanage is also raised in David Copperfield. As already David’s father is dead yet and his mother dies shortly after the birth of her second child, presumably suffering from the tortures of her cruel husband. Dickens was not the first novelist to draw the attention of the reading public to the deprivation of the lower classes in England, but he was much more successful than his predecessors in exposing the ills of the industrial society including class division, poverty, bad sanitation, privilege and meritocracy and the experience of the metropolis. In common with many nineteenth-century authors, Dickens used the novel as a repository of social conscience. The novel directs this ironical attack at the Victorian public opinion, which was either unaware or condoned such treatment of poor children. Dickens was critical about the Victorian education system, which is reflected not only in Nicholas Nickleby, Hard Times and Our Mutual Friend but also in his journalism and public speeches. As a boy, he was shocked to read reports about the cheap boarding schools in the North. In Nicholas Nickleby Dickens describes abusive practices in Yorkshire boarding schools. However, Dickens does not only criticise the malicious education system, but he is primarily concerned with the fates of these unfortunate children who are representatives of the most vulnerable portion of the society.

Communication Process Paper Essay Example

Communication Process Paper Essay Example Communication Process Paper Essay Communication Process Paper Essay Communication is important within all organizations, therefore an organizations communication process may be unique to that organization. Discussion includes the communication climate of Upshaw Processing as a whole. In addition, discussion includes the strengths and weaknesses of Upshaw’s communication. Discussion includes the contributions of management, supervisors, and employees that include an effective communication process. In addition, discussion includes an example that supports the communication process. Communication Climate The communication climate in Upshaw Processing may be formal or informal, depending on the employees working. Upshaw Processing is a small family business; therefore, most of the employees are family members except during deer season when non-family employees work. The use of informal channels of communication occurs during off-season when workers include family members, whereas during deer season, formal channels of communication occur when workers include non-family members. Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related to the professional activities of the members† (Robbins Judge, 2009, p. 353). â€Å"Informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices† (Robbins Judge, 2009, p. 353). Strengths of Communication The communication at Upshaw Processing may reach a high level of success before and during deer season. During deer season many customers visit the processing business, therefore communication is important for the success of the business. Lack of communication during deer season may cause confusion with the customers, employees, and owners. Communication is important because during deer season the activity increases to a high level. Employees are helping customers who are dropping off a deer for processing, employees are helping customers who are picking up a deer, and employees are helping to process other deer. The use of formal channel communication is important during deer season because of the high level of activity, otherwise a customer may pick up the wrong deer. Weaknesses of Communication Although communication levels are strong at Upshaw Processing, at times a weakness in communication may appear. Noise may cause a weakness in communication, whereas the employee may not understand the instructions from the supervisor. The weakness in communication may cause the loss of customers and money for the business. By using the Wheel of formal communication, Upshaw Processing weeds out the weaknesses in communication, otherwise the success of the business would be at risk. By weeding out the weakness in communication, the owners of Upshaw Processing are guaranteeing the success of the business. Effective Communication Of the Three Common Small-Group Networks, the use of the Wheel works for the processing business, therefore the owner relays messages to all employees. The use of the Wheel Network insures that all employees receive and understand the message from the start. Communication during the off-season is successful because employees are family members and know the job details for success. Long time employees learn to read the nonverbal actions of the owners and other employees, therefore spoken words may not occur for the communication to be successful. Example of Support An example of support for the communication climate within the processing business; employees are working and a customer comes in to pick up a deer, a certain employee will wash and wait on the customer. The employee returns to the owner to see what tub number holds the customers deer, and then retrieves the deer from the freezer. The employee collects the money for the processing fee and hands the money to the owner. The owner instructs a certain employee on the conduction of the collection process, therefore the action of communication of collection is successful. In addition to the above example, the owners instruct skinning room employees on the deer skinning process. Clear communication is important in the deer skinning process for the safety of the employees. Deer skinning involves the use of sharp knives, therefore an employee must understand the deer skinning process to work that area of the business. Conclusion The success of an organization requires communication, whereas each organization may practice a different type of communication process. Discussion includes information concerning the communication climate at Upshaw Processing. In addition, discussion includes the strengths and weaknesses of communication within Upshaw Processing. Discussion includes the effective communication process of the supervisor, manager, and employees. In conclusion, discussion includes an example that supports the communication process. Reference Robbins, S. P. Judge, T. A. (2009). Organizational Behavior. Retrieved October 2010 from University of Phoenix Materials, e-Book Collection

Battle of Blore Heath - War of the Roses

Battle of Blore Heath - War of the Roses Battle of Blore Heath - Conflict Date: The Battle of Blore Heath was fought September 23, 1459, during the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485). Armies Commanders: Lancastrian James Touchet, Baron AudleyJohn Sutton, Baron Dudley8,000-14,000 men Yorkists Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury3,000-5,000 men Battle of Blore Heath - Background: Open fighting between the Lancastrian forces of King Henry VI and the Richard, Duke of York began in 1455 at the First Battle of St. Albans. A Yorkist victory, the battle was a relatively minor engagement and Richard did not attempt to usurp the throne. In the four years that followed, an uneasy peace settled over the two sides and no fighting occurred. By 1459, tensions had again risen and both sides actively began recruiting forces. Establishing himself at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, Richard began summoning troops for action against the king. These efforts were countered by the Queen, Margaret of Anjou who was raising men in support of her husband. Learning that Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury was moving south from Middleham Castle in Yorkshire to join Richard, she dispatched a newly raised force under James Touchet, Baron Audley to intercept the Yorkists. Marching out, Audley intended to set an ambush for Salisbury at Blore Heath near Market Drayton. Moving onto the barren heathland on September 23, he formed his 8,000-14,000 men behind a great hedge facing northeast towards Newcastle-under-Lyme. Battle of Blore Heath - Deployments: As the Yorkists approached later that day, their scouts spotted the Lancastrian banners which protruded over the top of the hedge. Alerted to the enemys presence, Salisbury formed his 3,000-5,000 men for battle with his left anchored on a wood and his right on his wagon train which had been circled. Outnumbered, he intended to fight a defensive battle. The two forces were separated by Hempmill Brook which ran across the battlefield. Wide with steep sides and a strong current, the stream was a significant obstruction for both forces. Battle of Blore Heath - Fighting Begins: The fighting opened with fire from the opposing armies archers. Due to the distance separating the forces, this proved largely ineffectual. Realizing that any attack on Audleys larger army was doomed to fail, Salisbury sought to lure the Lancastrians out of their position. To accomplish this, he began a feigned retreat of his center. Seeing this, a force of Lancastrian cavalry charged forward, possibly without orders. Having accomplished his goal, Salisbury returned his men to their lines and met the enemy assault. Battle of Blore Heath - Yorkist Victory: Striking the Lancastrians as they crossed the stream, they repelled the attack and inflicted heavy losses. Withdrawing to their lines, the Lancastrians reformed. Now committed to the offensive, Audley led a second assault forward. This achieved greater success and the bulk of his men crossed the stream and engaged the Yorkists. In a period of brutal fighting, Audley was struck down. With his death, John Sutton, Baron Dudley, took command and led forward an additional 4,000 infantry. Like the others, this attack proved unsuccessful. As the fighting swung in the favor of the Yorkists, around 500 Lancastrians deserted to the enemy. With Audley dead and their lines wavering, the Lancastrian army broke from the field in a rout. Fleeing the heath, they were pursued by Salisburys men as far as the River Tern (two miles away) where additional casualties were inflicted. Battle of Blore Heath - Aftermath: The Battle of Blore Heath cost the Lancastrians around 2,000 killed, while the Yorkists incurred around 1,000. Having defeated Audley, Salisbury camped at Market Drayton before pressing on to Ludlow Castle. Concerned about Lancastrian forces in the area, he paid a local friar to fire a on cannon the battlefield through the night to convince them that the battle was ongoing. Though a decisive battlefield victory for the Yorkists, the triumph at Blore Heath was soon undercut by Richards defeat at Ludford Bridge on October 12. Bested by the king, Richard and his sons were forced to flee the country. Selected Sources UK Battlefields Resource Centre: Battle of Blore HeathWars of the Roses: Blore Heath

Archaeology - Neanderthals and Modern Humans Essay

Archaeology - Neanderthals and Modern Humans - Essay Example Human kind is very clever in this regard as well as in the regard of preserving life in severe environments, for a period of time. Yet, he states that human kind has often driven species to extinction and I have to personally agree with his position on this topic. Human kind is known to abuse the environment around it and this is no different from then as now. This is the main reason why so many living biological organisms are either extinct now or on the verge of extinction. Human kind over does it in practically every aspect of living so therefore my opinion is not very different from Wright's. Wright's belief is that it is this mentality of human kind that has ultimately lead to the downfall of many ancient civilizations. His point is that human kind falls into progress traps. We develop things that create a negative impact in our environments and that negatively affect our very own existence, thereby driving our own species into extinction. Wright also claims that cultural phenomena have absolutely nothing to do with human evolution and again I tend to agree with this. One of the examples that he gives in his book, in regards to the problem solving skills of mankind, is indicative in the summary he does of the Samarian

X-ray crystallography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

X-ray crystallography - Research Paper Example With this diffraction, it I easy to derive the three-dimensional outline or image projection of the density of electrons as profiled in the crystal. The crystal creates a platform for developing a pattern for mean positions of the atoms in the crystal. One can also manage to determine the chemical bonds of the structure, say carbon in diamond crystals and the varying disorders of some of the crystalline structures. Carbon is common in crystal formation. X-ray crystallography has been applied in many scientific fields due to the presence of crystals of many chemical compounds and elements. A pure crystalline structure is that of table salt, scientifically known as sodium chloride and represented by the chemical formula NaCl. Crystalline structures that have been studied by X-ray crystallography are many. Some of them are calcium fluoride (CaF2), calcite (CaCO3) and pyrite (FeS2). Others are spinel (MgAl2O4) and brucite (MgO4) among others. The inclusion of X-rays in studying crystalline structures enabled further understanding of these compounds in a manner that had never been used before and allowed for formation of more complex compounds through chemical reactions caused by interaction of crystalline structures. X-ray crystallography can be used to identify and locate unusual electronic properties of a material by studying their electron positions and mobility. It is also a tool for noting elastic properties of a material considering the chemical interactions that occur within the crystal and the associated processes. With these properties, X-ray crystallography is used in the design and manufacture of pharmaceuticals. Their application involves combining elements and modifying their crystalline structures to ensure that they bond as required (Clegg, 1988). Other than X-ray crystallography, there are other methods associated with determining atomic structures (Rhodes, 2006). However, they all rely on the principle of diffraction. These